Chicano English Dialect
The United States is a country with a wide variety of dialects including regional, ethnic, and occupational dialects. According to Millward and Hayes, a dialect is a “variety of a language distinguished from other varieties in such aspects as pronunciation, grammar, lexicon, and semantics” (Millward and Hayes, 345). One dialect of English found in the United States is Chicano English. Chicano English is an English dialect heavily influenced by Spanish features. The dialect is dominant to second-generation Mexican Americans and is primarily found in Southwestern United States, although it is becoming more widespread, especially in the Midwest (Ornstein-Galicia and Penfield, 20). It is a common misconception that those who speak Chicano English are native Spanish speakers whose second language is English. Carmen Fought, a researcher of Chicano English, notes that is common for people to think Chicano English is simply Spanish accented English (Fought, 63). This is not the case. Chicano English is pertinent to those who are native English speakers (Fought, 3). In fact, “many speakers of Chicano English are not bilingual: they may scarcely know any Spanish at all” (Fought, 3). However, this doesn’t mean that Chicano English speakers are not bilingual, for many are (Fought,3). Chicano English is a dialect that can be distinguished by its origin, its unique phonological features, its use of English grammar, and its cultural influences and characteristics as shown in Chicano literature.
Chicano English is seen as an ethnic contact dialect due to its origin. The dialect is dominantly spoken by Mexican Americans along the U.S. border in states like California and Texas. This is due to migration from Mexico into the United States (Fought, 14). The pattern of settlement along the U.S. border has resulted in such that “Latino native speakers of English have been in close contact with native Spanish speakers, and with Anglo speakers of English as well” (Fought, 14). Therefore, the dialect emerged as a result of the interaction between the two languages. The dialect’s development is similar to that of pidgin and creole languages. Fought explains that a pidgin is “the second language of a group of adult speakers” (14). In this case, English would be the pidgin of recently arrived Mexican immigrants, as they spoke English as a second language, influenced by characteristics of their dominant language; Spanish (Fought, 14). Fought explains that when the following generations speak this pidgin as their primary language, it becomes “more elaborated and grammaticized, as well as more stable, so that a fully developed creole is linguistically indistinguishable from languages that developed in other types of settings,” (Fought, 14). The stable dialect that resulted from this phenomenon was Chicano English (Fought, 14). This constant interplay and exchange between Spanish and English through migration resulted in the development of Chicano English.
While Chicano English is dominant to Southwestern United States, primarily Los Angeles, the dialect is prominent in the Midwest, due to the growing Latino population. A 1996 study found that Chicano English was indeed present in the Midwest by observing the cities of Sterling and Rock Falls, Illinois (Frazier, 72). According to Frazier, the community observed was “almost entirely of Mexican birth or ancestry” and their presence in the community dated back to WWI (72). However, those in the community were not dominant Spanish speakers or were bilingual in varying degrees, all aspects of Chicano English (73). Frazier had assumed that because of this, Chicano English would not be their dialect, but instead they would simply have Spanish interference in their language. However, this proved to be untrue, as Frazier found that Chicanos in the observed community shared dialectal aspects and characteristics similar to those found in the Chicano English dialect in the Southwest (72). His study shows that while Chicano English is dominant in the Southwest, it is prevalent in other parts of the country where the Mexican population is large. The generations of Chicanos adapted and formed the Chicano English dialect as described earlier by Fought.
Chicano English is a dialect with a unique set of phonological features due to its relationship with both English and Spanish. The dialect’s phonology is its most distinguishable difference from English. However, it is best to observe the dialect’s phonological characteristics as seen in Los Angeles, due to the area’s heavy population of Chicano speakers (Fought, 62). One phonological characteristic of Chicano English is the phenomenon of consonant cluster reduction and “the loss of final consonants that are not in a cluster” (Fought, 69). There is a constant deletion of t/d in Chicano English (Fought, 68). For example, the word “left” is typically transcribed as /lεft/ (Appenlezeller and Brennan). However, through Chicano English pronunciation, “left” would be transcribed as /lεf/ (Appenlezeller and Brennan). Another example of this characteristic is the word “kept.” The word is typically transcribed as /kεpt/ (Appenlezeller and Brennan). However, through Chicano English pronunciation, the word is transcribed as /kep/ (Appenlezeller and Brennan).
Another phonological characteristic of Chicano English is the alternation of /č/ and /ŝ/. According to Penfield and Ornstein, those who speak Chicano English “freely substitute /č/ for /ŝ/” (Ornstein and Penfield, 39). For example, in a word like check, typically pronounced as /čεk/ would be transcribed as /ŝεk/ in Chicano English (Ornstein and Penfield, 40). Linguists have attempted to explain the alternation of the phonemes, but have not yet come to a concrete conclusion. Some researchers have suggested that the alternation between the phonemes is an example of Spanish influence on the dialect, a form of interference (Ornstein and Penfield, 40). /č/ is a common phoneme in Spanish and the phoneme even has its own letter in the Spanish alphabet known as “ch.” However, because /ŝ/ is not common in “nonstandard varieties of Mexican Spanish” the argument of interference is not a strong one (Ornstein and Penfield, 40). Linguists have temporarily settled on the idea that the alternation between the phonemes may simply be due to a confusion between sounds (Ornstein and Penfield, 40). While the reasons for this alternation are not yet completely concrete, the phoneme alternation continues to be an important phonological aspect of Chicano English today.
Although phonology is a dominant characteristic of Chicano English that distinguishes it as a dialect, lexicon plays an important role in the dialect. Borrowing is a large aspect of Chicano English, as the language uses many Spanish words and throws them into a sentence. Garcia explains that the Chicano English speaker “borrows words from both Spanish and English regardless of which language he is speaking,” (Garcia, 35). This characteristic can be seen as a combination of grammar and lexicon, as words are borrowed from English and Spanish, and are adapted to fit the grammatical patterns of the desired language. Spanish words are altered to fit the Standard English dialect, while English words are altered to fit forms of the Spanish dialect (Garcia, 35). An example is the phrase “your mother is planching” (Garcia, 35). Planchar is the Spanish word for “to iron.” The term is adapted by Chicano speakers to fit English language patterns, like the –ing ending. Garcia explains that what occurs is a “blending of two languages” in which “hispanicized English words are altered to conform to the Spanish pattern or word structure” (Garcia, 35). An example of this phenomenon is the English term gang. In Chicano English, the term has been adapted to fit the Spanish pattern with the inflectional ending –a (Garcia, 35). Therefore, the term used by Chicano English speakers for the word gang is ganga, when the actual Spanish term for the word is pandilla. This adaptation of words is a common characteristic of the Chicano English dialect.
Another grammatical characteristic of the Chicano English dialect is the loss of the –ed ending and the use of multiple negation. In Chicano English, the –ed ending used to indicate past tense is “dropped altogether” (Appenlezeller and Brennan). In Standard American English, the word baked is usually transcribed as /beɪkt/ (Appenlezeller and Brennan). The /t/ phoneme follows the end of “most voiceless consonants” (Appenlezeller and Brennan). However, in Chicano English, this ending disappears. In Chicano English, baked is transcribed as /beɪk/ due to the loss of the past inflection (Appenlezeller and Brennan). A grammatical characteristic typically found in Standard American English is not present in Chicano English, marking its distinction as a dialect. Multiple negation is another common characteristic of the Chicano English dialect. In Standard American English, multiple negatives are not common and are seen almost as “improper” grammar (Appenlezeller and Brennan). However, Chicano English does not shy away from its use. For example, a Standard American English speaker would typically say, “I didn’t have a jacket or anything” (Appenlezeller and Brennan). There is no use of double negation. However, a Chicano English speaker would say, for the same sentence, “I didn’t have no jacket or nothing” (Appenlezeller and Brennan). The Chicano English speaker negates several times in the sentence. While this multiple negation is typically frowned upon in Standard American English, it is common in Chicano English.
Chicano English is a dialect of a culturally aware people. Chicano English speakers, known as Chicanos, are aware of the uniqueness of their dialect and take a sort of pride in their unique culture. This cultural awareness is primarily seen in Chicano literature. Ana Castillo, a Chicana writer, discusses the use of the Chicano English dialect in literature, both as part of the Chicano movement and her own (Romero). Castillo recognizes the differences in dialect she must show in her own writing and discusses biases people have had towards her because of her use of the Chicano English dialect, saying that while working on a novel with the dialect, “because we are Chicanas it was assumed that we don't know our English nor our Spanish” (Romero). This is a common misconception individuals have towards those who speak Chicano English. However, this does not deter Castillo, as she consciously makes sure to represent the dialect in her works, explaining “If my novel was instead written in Standard English, I'm doing nothing more than writing a White standard novel with an ethnic motif. I started to listen very carefully, and the double negatives in fact drove some of the New York copyeditors crazy, they had to cut back. But it was fun for me. I tried to stay as true as I could” (Romero). Although it is difficult, Castillo attempts to give a true representation of the Chicano English dialect and culture in her writing, something seen in similar works by author Sandra Cisneros.
Sandra Cisneros is a Mexican American novelist who shows the use of Chicano English dialect and culture in her works, primarily in her novel The House on Mango Street. The House on Mango Street is a novel focusing on the life of a young girl, Esperanza, and her experience as a young Latina growing up in Chicago. Esperanza’s name itself is a representation of Chicano English lexicon and phonology, as it notes the distinction between the meaning of similar words in English and Spanish. Cisneros writes, “In English my name means hope. In Spanish it means too many letters” (Cisneros, 10). While her name does not literally mean “too many letters,” Cisneros refers to the phonological differences between Chicano English and Standard English, as Esperanza notes the way her classmates choppily pronounce her name, making her dislike and be ashamed of it (Cisneros, 11). Cisneros makes sure to represent the borrowing of Spanish terms in Chicano English with her use of both languages, especially when Esperanza’s grandfather passes away. She writes, “your abuelito is dead” (Cisneros, 56). As discussed before, Chicano English borrows Spanish words. However, here, the term is not adapted to fit English patterns, but it simply thrown into the sentence. Cisneros does this again with the term “brazer” (Cisneros, 66). However, here the term used is a slang word for the Spanish word “bracero” which has been adapted and shaped to follow a Standard English pattern. Cisneros’ objective is to display the life of a Chicano girl, and she does so through displaying characteristics of the Chicano English dialect.
Chicano English has proven to be an English dialect through its unique linguistic characteristics. Phonology plays the biggest role in identifying Chicano English as a dialect, although grammar and lexicon are also important in defining the dialect. Chicano English is a dominant dialect in the United States that will continue to grow along with the growing presence of Latinos in the country. As a Mexican American, it is interesting to see the development of the dialect and the direction the dialect is heading. Chicano English is not a dialect confined to the Southwest, it is a growing dialect spreading across the country in Latino heavy cities and suburbs. As a result, being a “Chicano” has become somewhat of an identity individuals are proud of. It is a unique culture with a blend of both American and Mexican identities and aspects as seen in the media and in Chicano literature. Chicano English as a dialect will continue to develop as the presence of Latinos in the country grows.
Works Cited
Appenlezeller, Thomas and Kate Brennan. “Chicano English.” Multicultural Topics in Communications Sciences and Disorders. Portland State University,
http://www.pdx.edu/multicultural-topics-communication-sciences-disorders/chicano-english. Accessed 21 Nov. 2016.
Cisneros, Sandra. The House on Mango Street. Vintage Books, 1984.
Fought, Carmen. Chicano English in Context, Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
Frazer, Timothy C. “Chicano English and Spanish Interference in the Midwestern United States.” American Speech, Vol. 71, No. 1, 1996, pp. 72-85, Jstor,
www.jstor.org/stable/455470. Accessed 20 Nov. 2016.
Garcia, Ricardo L. “Toward a Grammar of Chicano English.” The English Journal, Vol. 63, No.3, 1974, pp. 34-38, Jstor, www.jstor.org/stable/813844. Accessed
21 Nov. 2016.
Hayes, Mary and C.M. Millward. A Biography of the English Language, Third Edition, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2012.
Ornstein-Galicia, Jacob and Joyce Penfield. Chicano English: An Ethnic Contact Dialect. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1985. eBook Collection
(EBSCOhost), http://proxy.elmhurst.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=363850&site=ehost-live.
Romero, Simon. Interview With Anna Castillo. Modern American Poetry, 18 June 1993,
http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/a_f/castillo/interview.htm. Accessed 21 Nov. 2016.